In recent times, a need to focus on feminist writings has emerged with the global discourse and political scenario shifting to social, political and economic equality. India has a wide array of feminist resources and material. However, these have been hard to find and have been collated over the years through the efforts of many women who believed in and championed the cause of feminism.
The findings of these texts have made two points evident – Indian feminism is different from feminism in other countries. Herstories, although hard to find, change the narrative of history to a great extent, adding gender inclusivity to the currently skewed narrative balance in historical records.
Sanjukta Ghosh, writing for Dissent Magazine on the book ‘Feminism in India’ spoke about the palpable differences in feminism as experienced by women from different countries and cultures and the need to not call them all the same, saying, “Different geographies and histories are conflated until difference is lost and one ‘third world feminism’ becomes interchangeable with another, collapsing into one theoretical model the multiple struggles of very different women under very different conditions”.
Kirthi Jayakumar, a feminist, activist and author has said, “History has traditionally been written by the male hand, so women are seldom mentioned. The oppression of women’s free speech continues today”. This theme was interesting to note in the differences between the two pre-colonial texts – The Courtesan’s Keeper (Samaya Mātrikā) by Kshemendra and the Appeasement of Radhika: Radhika Santawanam by Muddupalani – and the very different audiences they both received.
Kshemendra’s text doesn’t seem to have faced any opposition in history. Muddupalani’s Radhika Santawanam, while being praised during her time (the era of Raja Pratapsimha of Thanjavur), did receive considerable opposition when it was re-published in its full text by Nagarathnamma, following the printing of “sanitised” versions of the poem.
Nagarathnamma’s edition of Muddupalani’s book was published in 1910 by the Vavilla Press and was banned in 1911. It was finally restored to its rightful place in Indian literature in 1952 by the Chief Minister of Madras, Tanguturi Prakasam, who said this was “restoring a few pearls to the necklace of Telugu literature”.
The introduction of Radhika Santawanam (published by Penguin Random House India) tells us that the literary critic Kandukuri Veeresalingam condemned Muddupalani’s graphic descriptions of intercourse saying, “Several references in the book are disgraceful and inappropriate for women to hear, let alone be uttered from a woman’s mouth”.
He also called Nagarathnamma an adulteress and a prostitute. Nagarathnamma had responded immediately, saying, “Does the question of propriety and embarrassment apply only in the case of women, not men? Is he (Veeresalingam) implying that it is acceptable for Muddupalani to write about conjugal pleasures in minute detail and without reservation because she was a courtesan?” Nagarathnamma successfully combated all notions of womanly propriety that government and society sought to impose as hegemonic ideals on women, restoring what was unspoken and intrinsic.
With the silencing and invisibility of so many herstories in the tomes of history, it becomes urgent and important to go back and find these stories of women, hence changing the unilateral and limited view of history to a more inclusive and comprehensive lens. It is also interesting to look for elements of feminism in pre-colonial texts since contemporary feminist views differ to a great extent and the times in which these texts were written differ radically from our own.
It was interesting to read The Courtesan’s Keeper as it is a novel that centres around 2 women – Kalavati, a young courtesan, and Kankali, a retired courtesan with valuable experience – and was written by Kshemendra, a man. Set in the 11th century, it offers an insightful glance into the life of the people in the Kashmir valley, particularly the courtesans.
With the silencing of so many herstories in the tomes of history, it becomes urgent to go back and find these stories of women.
A feminist element that prevails in the text in the characters’ years of maturity, is choice. It can be gleaned at first glance and is interconnected with the rest of the elements. Sexuality as a choice is celebrated in the text and not shunned.
Elements of feminism included are also social mobility and freedom of movement. Women can inherit property and litigate in courts as witnessed especially through the life story of Kankali. She has held many positions – thief, courtesan, wife, witch, beggar, Buddhist nun, wet nurse, herdswoman, cake seller, astrologer, liquor hawker, ascetic – and properties albeit by conniving means. She has also travelled within India and beyond – including Guada and Vanga (Bengal) and Turushka (Turkey) – changing identities and professions.
This gives way to two other feminist elements which are mentorship and collaboration. Kankali acted as a mentor to Kalavati, helping her strengthen her position as a courtesan and maximise her business profits, leaning on her own personal experiences to do so. Her first practical lesson to Kalavati was how to extricate massive amounts of money from wealthy men and for this, she used the rich merchant’s son, the gullible Panka. There seemed to be no business where people at the heart of it didn’t use tricks – whether priests, merchants, doctors or courtesans.
Kankali was erudite and able to earn a living at every stage of her life, irrespective of her age. Through her, Kshemendra portrayed a woman who acquired wealth and knowledge throughout her life and was smart enough to do so, gaining multiple skills by being open to learning and collaboration. This shows an extremely entrepreneurial side and challenges the notion that with the fading of a woman’s youth comes her doo